Why is glycogen branched

B Summary of Cascade Regulation replacing Figs. Highly branched, permits rapid degradation through simultaneous release of glucose units from the end of each branch. Liver and muscle are two major storage sites. Catalyzes the rate-limiting step in glycogen breakdown. All the authors approved the final draft of the manuscript submitted for review and publication. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Almagro, G. Comparative genomic and phylogenetic analyses of gammaproteobacterial glg genes traced the origin of the Escherichia coli glycogen glgBXCAP operon to the last common ancestor of the sister orders enterobacteriales and pasteurellales. PLoS One e Alonso-Casajus, N. Glycogen phosphorylase, the product of the glgP Gene, catalyzes glycogen breakdown by removing glucose units from the nonreducing ends in Escherichia coli.

Apweiler, R. UniProt: the universal protein knowledgebase. Nucleic Acids Res. Ball, S. Binderup, K. Limited proteolysis of branching enzyme from Escherichia coli.

Binderup, M. Truncation of the amino terminus of branching enzyme changes its chain transfer pattern. Blesak, K. Sequence fingerprints of enzyme specificities from the glycoside hydrolase family GH Extremophiles 16, — Bornemann, S.

Alpha-Glucan biosynthesis and the GlgE pathway in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Bruton, C. Tissue-specific glycogen branching isoenzymes in a multicellular prokaryote, Streptomyces coelicolor A3 2. Chandra, G. Unexpected and widespread connections between bacterial glycogen and trehalose metabolism. Microbiology Pt 6 , — Cho, K. Comparative analysis of the glg operons of pectobacterium chrysanthemi PY35 and other prokaryotes.

Dauvillee, D. Role of the Escherichia coli glgX gene in glycogen metabolism. Devillers, C. Characterization of the branching patterns of glycogen branching enzyme truncated on the N-terminus. Eddy, S. What is a hidden Markov model? Eydallin, G. Genome-wide screening of genes affecting glycogen metabolism in Escherichia coli K FEBS Lett. Feng, L. Crystal structures of Escherichia coli branching enzyme in complex with linear oligosaccharides.

Biochemistry 54, — Finn, R. The Pfam protein families database: towards a more sustainable future. Froese, D. Structural basis of glycogen branching enzyme deficiency and pharmacologic rescue by rational peptide design. Goh, Y.

A functional glycogen biosynthesis pathway in Lactobacillus acidophilus : expression and analysis of the glg operon. Gupta, A. Arora, A.

Sajid, and V. Berlin: Springer. Google Scholar. Hayashi, M. Bound substrate in the structure of cyanobacterial branching enzyme supports a new mechanistic model. Hengge-Aronis, R. Identification and molecular analysis of glgS, a novel growth-phase-regulated and rpoS-dependent gene involved in glycogen synthesis in Escherichia coli.

Henrissat, B. Glycogen metabolism loss: a common marker of parasitic behaviour in bacteria? Trends Genet. Hilden, I. Characterization and crystallization of an active N-terminally truncated form of the Escherichia coli glycogen branching enzyme. Huang, H. A comprehensive protein-centric ID mapping service for molecular data integration. Bioinformatics 27, — Jo, H. Vibrio vulnificus glycogen branching enzyme preferentially transfers very short chains: N1 domain determines the chain length transferred.

Jones, S. Glycogen and maltose utilization by Escherichia coli OH7 in the mouse intestine. Klotz, A. Glycogen, a major player for bacterial survival and awakening from dormancy. Future Microbiol. Kumar, S. MEGA7: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 7. Kuriki, T. Construction of chimeric enzymes out of maize endosperm branching enzymes I and II: activity and properties.

Letunic, I. Interactive tree of life iTOL v3: an online tool for the display and annotation of phylogenetic and other trees. Leggio, L. A structural model for the N-terminal N1 module of E-coli glycogen branching enzyme. Biologia 57, — Lombard, V. The carbohydrate-active enzymes database CAZy in McMeechan, A. As for human glycogen branching enzyme GBE1, the evolutionary history of this protein can be traced back to Bacteria, for a putative ortholog of human branching enzyme exists in several bacteria, for instance, in a dominant human gut symbiont— Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron.

In contrast, our study shows that the well-known E. This obeservation, combined with the low conservation of residues mutated in human diseases in E. On the other hand, the Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron branching enzyme is an attractive target for modeling human glycogen storage diseases in Bacteria.

Finally, these results show that not only regulatory proteins, such as those involved in apoptosis regulation [ 63 ], but also basic metabolic enzymes may have a complex evolutionary history, rich in ancient and recent gene duplications, combined with lineage specific gene losses and dynamic domain architectures, with frequent and surreptitious addition and loss of individual domains. Such a history can only be revealed by explicit phylogenetic and comparative domain architecture analysis.

Protein predictions for organisms with a completely sequenced genome were obtained from the sources listed in Additional file 1 , covering the following species: 93 animals, 2 choanoflagellates, Capsaspora owczarzaki , Sphaeroforma arctica , 78 fungi, Fonticula alba , 7 amoebozoans, 30 land plants, 10 green algae, Cyanidioschyzon merolae , Cyanophora paradoxa draft , Emiliania huxleyi , Guillardia theta , 12 Alveolata, 16 Stramenopiles, Bigelowiella natans , Reticulomyxa filose , Thecamonas trahens , 8 Excavata, 49 Archaea, and Bacteria.

We experimented with different per-domain E-value thresholds to ensure that the results presented here are robust and not simply artifacts of an arbitrarily chosen threshold. For the phylogenetic analyses we generally used a per-domain E-value threshold of 10 -3 unless noted otherwise. Distance-based minimal evolution trees were inferred by FastME 2. For maximum likelihood and Bayesian approaches we employed PhyML 2. For the calculations of typed support values from different sources, confadd 1.

Tree and domain composition diagrams were drawn using Archaeopteryx [ 56 ]. All conclusions presented in this work are robust relative to the alignment methods, the alignment processing, the phylogeny reconstruction methods, and the parameters used. All sequence, alignment, and phylogeny files are available upon request.

The data sets supporting the results of this article are available in the Dryad repository, doi CZ participated in the conception and design of the study, performed the data collection, sequence analyses, phylogenetic calculations, and contributed to the interpretation of the results. AG participated in the conception and design of the study, performed the structural analyses, and contributed to the interpretation of the results.

Both authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript and read and approved the final text. In 4th edition. New York: Wiley; Nat Neurosci.

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J Mol Biol. Induction of glycogen branching enzyme. Primary structure of Escherichia coli 1,4-alpha-D-glucan:1,4-alpha-D-glucan 6-alpha-D- 1, 4-alpha-D-glucano -transferase as deduced from the nucleotide sequence of the glg B gene.

Biochim Biophys Acta. J Bacteriol. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. Nakayama A, Yamamoto K, Tabata S: Identification of the catalytic residues of bifunctional glycogen debranching enzyme. Romeo T, Kumar A, Preiss J: Analysis of the Escherichia coli glycogen gene cluster suggests that catabolic enzymes are encoded among the biosynthetic genes.

Anantharaman V, Aravind L, Koonin EV: Emergence of diverse biochemical activities in evolutionarily conserved structural scaffolds of proteins. Curr Opin Chem Biol.

Plant Cell. Article Google Scholar. Am J Med Genet. Andersen DH: Familial cirrhosis of the liver with storage of abnormal glycogen. Lab Invest. Moses SW, Parvari R: The variable presentations of glycogen storage disease type IV: a review of clinical, enzymatic and molecular studies. Am J Med Genet A. Ann Neurol.

Mol Genet Metab. Characterization of a gene for starch-branching enzyme IIa from the wheat genome donor Aegilops tauschii. Correct answer: Galactose-beta-1,4-glucose. Explanation : lactose is made up of galactose and glucose and is bound via a beta 1,4 glycosidic bond. Copyright Notice. View Biochemistry Tutors.

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